If a Raindrop Falls....

I have a brother who cannot seem to want enough rain. In one email he asked the question “What is the best rain?” In an even earlier email he intimated that but for people we would not know flooding. The title of this post is then a play on the long known philosophical thought experiment about the falling tree in the forest if no one is around to hear does it make a sound. So, forming my brothers question and statement another way, would rain drops fall if no one was around to feel/see them? As geology teaches us, rain and wind have been forming the landscape for eons, well before man, well before the dinosaurs, and even before continental drift. It has left limestone, which is formed from creatures of the sea, well above sea level (I can take you to a cave in the east bluff of Devil’s Lake that shows this), it has made mountains into monadnocks, created river deltas, and helped form our soil. The determination of what is the best rain is related to a variety of factors—rainfall intensity, capacity of the soil, type of soil, land cover/use. As we know from grade school, all the water we will ever have has been on the earth, it just keeps recycling by the hydrologic cycle. Of the water on the earth, reportedly only about 3% is fresh water, and of that, one-third (or 1% of total) is surface and groundwater. Therefore, not only is the hydrologic cycle important, but so is how we choose to use our water, and how we develop our land uses. Perhaps over time I can provide more on this connection, but for the time being this post is related to one aspect of storm water runoff. 

Overland Flow

Most, if not all, readers of this blog have been outside in an intense rain event where we see water runoff (for relatives, think of the family picnic in Stevens Point a few years back), and my brother’s email post reminded me of what I learned in a college hydrology course. That runoff we typically see has a name and is referred to Horton overland flow, named for Robert E. Horton, who the text book (yes, I still have the text book) notes provided the foundation for modern quantitative hydrology (1978, Dunne, Thomas and Luna Leopold, Water in Environmental Planning, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco). Horton overland flow, as noted in the book (p. 259) occurs anywhere rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Further, once rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil “runoff rises to a sharp peak at the end of the rainfall, followed by a rapid decline as soon as rainfall intensity decreases.” Of course, not all land surfaces have a direct slope to a stream, there are pockets or depressions that hold water and that water later infiltrates or evaporates. A rain garden is a man-made depression to hold water and allow it to infiltrate or evapo-transpirate. Since the mid 1980’s we have seen detention ponds which hold back storm water and release it based on the calculated development rate by the use of what are called weir structures. But, even detention ponds have problems. More scouring of streams can occur simply because there is more storm water than there would be under predevelopment conditions. In any rain even you can walk out on to your driveway or street and you will experience Horton overland flow. Why? Because the intensity of the rain exceeds the capacity of the land surface to infiltrate it. More impervious surfaces lead to more storm water. Detention ponds release a greater amount of water than what originally have been present, due to impervious surfaces, and hence you get more scouring and disruption of the natural stream system. More scouring leads to more soil laden water that will be deposited somewhere.

Rain Garden

One would think that semi-arid land would have a great amount of capacity for water, after all, it is not like the soil is saturated from many prior storms, since semi-arid is almost desert like. But, what is known is that Horton overland flow occurs most frequently on areas devoid of vegetation or possess only a thin cover. Cultivated fields also have a high rate of flow, even though the fields may be planted the area between the rows leave soil exposed and without proper cover it loses its better infiltration capacity. Lawns of course also see Horton overland flow, partly due to compaction. Of course, infiltration of rain is greater in humid regions due to its often better vegetative cover. A good vegetative land cover, such as forest cover, has the least amount of overland flow. A few of the reasons for this are: the detritus of the leaves and decaying branches provide a nice humus layer that assists in water take-up; the leaves break up the intensity of the rainfall; lesser compaction of the soil; and perhaps even more earth worm or other micro-fauna activity which produce macro-pores. Dunne and Leopold even go on to say that in these areas Horton overland flow may not occur.

Prairie Plant Root Depth compared to
Bluegrass

Don’t be fooled by the presence of what we planners call macro-pores. In 1998, in attempting to devise a more suitable storm water management system, the city for which I work engaged a consultant and actually tested varied soils, and the same soils but under different conditions. What we found was that macro-pores greatly assist in infiltration of rain and storm water. We found that earthworms and prairie plants provide great macro-pores. Prairie plants are able to do this as their root system is much deeper, some up to 14 or 15 feet, compared to a standard 3 or 4 inches for common lawn grasses. The long roots assist in providing openings in the soil. For example, purple coneflower is known as a clay buster due to its root structure, and its effect on that type of soil. The natural vegetation for the area of Wisconsin in which I am located was prairie and oak openings (oak savannah), but do not get the impression that there were was a high density of trees. It is thought that there was hundreds of feet between trees, leaving much area for prairie grasses. The soil present in pre-settlement conditions was not unlike the soil today, but for less topsoil due to erosion.

Rainfall Map for part of June 2008

What may be key is the intensity of the rainfall. The red of the radar means a more intense rainfall than a green or yellow. Intense rainfalls this past week in Chicago caused flooding, and of course in 2008 the Wisconsin Dells area saw two back-to-back 100 year storm events separated only by a few days which led to the Lake Delton Dam breach and the flooding of the interstate highway. Soil was inundated, runoff filled depressions, and the overflow. With intense rains, so much comes so quickly that the soil capacity is quickly utilized or the soil has little time to absorb a heavy rain.

Lake Delton, WI

To answer the question posed by my brother, the best rain is dependent upon a variety of factors, including what you hope to get from the rain. It would seem that a rain that can infiltrate and produce little in terms of overland flow would be the best. The infiltrating rain would then be available for transpiration by plants, evaporation by sun and wind, or recharge of the ground water. (Groundwater also feeds, lakes, streams and wetlands.) Therefore, most people would not consider a good rain event to be a radar reporting red or purple storm event. If one wants a great deal of overland flow to fill streams and lakes quickly, than radar red is a good rain. In the end, perhaps it is appropriate on this day in which Laudato Si was released that we borrow a line from St. Francis of Assisi and his Canticle of the Sun: "Be praised, my Lord, through Sister Water; she is very useful, and humble, and precious, and pure." We just need to realize that it is our job to tend and keep well our water and earth.

Images courtesy of Google

Bigger in Texas

I recall my visits to Chicago as a child with a greater sense of understanding now that it is over forty years later.  Besides marveling at the large, and tall buildings, the forest preserve, Grant Park, the urban plazas, and the well knit neighborhoods I recall watching with trepidation as my father would move through heavy traffic down the massive expressways, such as the famous Dan Ryan.  My Uncles and Aunts, natives of Chicago, typically increased my anxiety with driving antics that we here in Wisconsin refer to as "Illinois drivers."  I now know that is the way one has to drive in such traffic, but to a little boy from Wisconsin it was rather frightening sitting in the back seat as we weaved in and out of traffic.  But, what you may ask, does Chicago have to do with the title of this post--"Bigger in Texas."  While the hint is in this paragraph, and it shows well the love affair that America has with concrete and the automobile. You see Texas has the Katy Freeway, which US Representative John Culbertson is proud. In the June 9, 2014 Congressional Record you will find the following:

I'm very disappointed and disheartened that my friend, Mr. Poe, would...call the Katy Freeway a concrete monstrosity.  It's my pride and joy.  I got the Katy Freeway built without an earmark.  Got it built from five year three months.  Went from eight lanes to 23 lanes.  The economics has boomed because of the Katy Freeway.  it's moving cars in less time, more savings to taxpayers than any other transportation project in the history of Houston.

One section of the Katy Freeway

In 2010 Houston added additional single occupant vehicle lanes to the freeway, apparently taking it to 23.  Although I have seen some reports that in areas the freeway is 26 and even 28 lanes.  the project ending in 2010, cost $2.8 billion, which was $1.63 million more than the original $1.17 billion budget.  One can count on government projects being over budget, but one would think the defense department was in charge of this project with an overrun more than the original cost.  But it is not just the cost or the lanes that is Bigger in Texas, it is also the misrepresentations.  The good politician apparently got his facts wrong.  A study of Houston Transtar data by a group known as Houston Tomorrow, has reported, that the time to travel between the two same points has increased 33% in 2014 as compared to 2011, just after the opening of the new road. You read that right, in just three years the travel time has increased 33%.  Perhaps what is really bigger in Texas are traffic jams.  Traffic experts have the famous mantra that we can build our way out of congestion.  As the Katy Freeway has shown that is simply not the case.  $2.8 billion dollars later, the new and improved 23 lane highway, only three years after its last improvement, has traffic moving at a rate 33% slower.  Perhaps the best thing the congressman said is that he did not need to get any special earmarks for the roadway.  In layman's terms "earmark" is equivalent to what we know as "pork."

Everybody's favorite idea of travel on an urban freeway

Planners know something about roads that transportation engineers wish to ignore, or fail to recognize and that is a concept we call induced traffic.  Any new road construction will draw in more traffic.  People adjust trips, alter their movement, and more development occurs--much of which is, particularly in Houston, unmitigated sprawl.  The disparate land use pattern leads to more auto trips.  Transportation Engineers bring part of this on themselves by their design.  To limit costs, they often decided to limit cross traffic, which would mean more bridge structures.  Fifty years later, WisDOT has realized that their having limited cross access on Madison's locally infamous South Beltline has led to more trips on that roadway as people have to use that road to get to another exit. Studies have shown that most who use the Beltline use it for a local trip, getting on and off in less than five interchanges.  Having had the original street connections, some of this traffic would have had an alternate route available.  With the design they need to get on the Beltline for a local trip.  The Katy Freeway experience may be teaching the engineers down in Houston about the induced traffic concept.  It will only be a matter of time before the freeway is 30 or more lanes.

Dan Ryan Expressway, Chicago, IL

The Dan Ryan was the first of what are called super-sized freeways built in the United States.  it dates the early 1960's.  My Uncle Leo used the Dan Ryan and was proud of the ability of the "Windy City" to construct such a large concrete monolith.  Such freeways are the pride of transportation engineers.  I recall him later pointing out with pride the yellow glow of the then energy efficient "high pressure sodium lights."  In the small city where I work, the City Attorney coined the nickname for our transportation engineer adding the word "Concrete" after her first name.  Houston has now done Chicago one better, by its Katy Freeway.  Showing the pride or deniability of their work, one traffic engineer wrote that the Katy Freeway, "Houston will undoubtedly be among the world's freeway elite."  Of course, this is part a cultural aspect of the United States that progress is not measured by how we care for one another, but in how much concrete we can lay, and how many lanes we can build. In one of our patriotic songs, by Woody Guthrie, we sing the almost romantic words in one stanza--"As I went walking that ribbon of highway...."  

South Beltline Highway, Madison, WI

We all use our roads, some more than others, and our roads have come to help dictate our land use policies.  Post World War II has led to a seventy year experiment in land use that we still have not fully been able to comprehend, much less to think about its long-term unintended consequences.  We need to plan better.  There are better models, but we as a nation are often too set in our ways and, as I say at work--people gravitate to that to which they are most familiar.  This thinking leaves us with the same problems.  As expending billions of dollars fails to decrease highway congestion, as travel time increases, even on new and improved state of the art bands of concrete ribbon, perhaps we will see the futility of our land use policies. Highways are here to stay, and we all use them, we just need to be smarter about how we expend our money and how we move, particularly from home to work and back.  Yes things are bigger in Texas, including, but not limited to, highways, congestion, cost overruns.  Of the ten top metropolitan areas in the US, Houston spends the most per-capita on its highway system.  Chicago, however, is not far behind.  However, if there is one take away from this post, perhaps it is that we as a nation need to think about in what we place our pride.

Pollen

The world is a complicated system, but yet there are certain natural laws that hold true, two of which are: people and animals need oxygen to live and they exhale carbon dioxide; plants need carbon dioxide and release oxygen. This seemingly great symbiotic relationship, that we all learned pre-high school, in which both fauna and flora benefit, has a kink if you suffer from allergies, and more in particular you have asthma. If you have varied environmental allergies, the cards in the deck may seemed stacked against you as you wheeze your way through the now lengthening pollen season. 

A Close-up Look at Pollen

Scientists have noted that carbon dioxide levels have been increasing. Dr. Joseph Leigra, has been collecting pollen and mold spore from a collection machine on the roof of a suburban Chicago hospital, from where he is now retired, for over 24 years. He, being one of many, has noticed the increase in pollen. Increases in levels of carbon dioxide are mainly (some estimates place it at 87%) attributed to our use of fossil fuels. (Prior to heavy use of fossil fuels carbon dioxide natural emissions are said to have been balanced by natural absorption.) With more carbon dioxide you get more plant growth, with more plant growth you get more pollen, more pollen exacerbates allergies, and in particular those that may suffer from both allergies and asthma. But, because allergy symptoms are similar to those of the common cold, the number of persons with an allergy is likely under-reported. It is reported that 1 in 5 Americans have a ragweed allergy and 1 in 12 have asthma. Federal data indicates a 17% increase in asthma between 2001 and 2012. An allergist at the hospital were Dr. Leigra collects his pollen samples noted that children are being affected with allergies at a younger age, and adult symptoms are becoming more severe. I see this in my spouse, who is allergic to grass and trees, and since pretty much every biome on earth has grass, she may as well be allergic to the environment. The past couple weeks have not been kind to her and if increases in carbon dioxide continue, matters may only get worse.

Study Relating Pollen to Carbon Dioxide Levels; 2060 is an estimate

People with asthma can have trouble breathing—they need oxygen too—and while the causes of asthma have many factors, doctors say the condition is exacerbated by pollen. One study found that high carbon dioxide levels are more likely to trigger an allergic reaction. Proteins on the surface of pollen can vary and this variation can lead to different allergic reactions. Allergist and immunologist Leonard Bielory at Rutgers University says that allergy risk is a convergence of many factors—a person's sensitivity to allergens, seasonal temperature variations, urban development, and varied reaction of plants to different chemicals, among other things. It is known, however, that the number of persons sensitized to pollen has doubled in the last 20 years. Part of this may be related to the hygiene hypothesis—where we are too clean and thus do not develop proper antibodies. Temperature variation, not unlike what we have seen this spring, one day with temperatures in the 30’s another in the 70’s, mixes up the immune system and leads to more suffering. Likewise, more male trees, after all pollen is the sperm, are being planted to avoid the trouble with having to clean up seed pods. Less mess, more pollen. It was on drive full of maple seed "helicopters" that my oldest son years ago spun out on his bike and broke his arm. Wet fall and winter weather also is thought to lead to higher spring pollen counts—after all, plants like water too.

Map of Tree Pollen levels in the Continental United States
on June 4, 2015

While we may think that more plant growth is good, most say the few positive effects are outweighed by the negative effects. The world is complicated and temperature changes, erosion and soil conditions and other effects may limit more than limit the beneficial effects of greater plant growth. With increasing carbon dioxide levels, increasing in pollen days per year (pollen days in Minneapolis has increased 16 days in 14 years), my wife and other allergy sufferers may be seeing a new normal. Of course, because the natural world is complicated more study needs to be accomplished, but it would appear that increasing carbon dioxide is becoming a matter of public health.

Images are from Google Images

On Wisconsin!

It was on this date, in 1848, that Wisconsin became the 30th state in the Union. Of interest, is that it was the last state whose territory is located fully east of the Mississippi River to enter the Union. In fact, five states which I consider west of the Mississippi (I include Louisiana as being west of the Mississippi River), entered statehood before Wisconsin. Four of the five had their east border along the west bank of the Mississippi. Iowa was the northernmost of these states, and became a state in 1846. Many of us know that the first European to have reached Wisconsin was Jean Nicolet in 1634. From that date forward, the written history of the state can be realized. However, the first inhabitants of the state probably arrived about 10,000 years ago. While agriculture was being established in what we now call the Mid-east (about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago) the early arrivals in Wisconsin, depended upon a hunter-gatherer life style.

Travel route for French explorer Jean Nicolet in 1634

At about the same time, 10,000 years ago, much of the state had just been subjected to its last glacier, what is known as the Wisconsin Glacier. Hence, artifacts and archaeological evidence for this early era comes from what we know as the driftless area of Wisconsin—that area of southwest Wisconsin un-touched by glaciation and which provides that region with the hill and valley landforms unique to that part of the state. Perhaps Manny, the mammoth in the movie “Ice Age” was based on the mastodon found in the Richland County community of Boaz. The skeleton of this Boaz mastodon is located at the Geology Museum on the campus of the University of Wisconsin. Clovis spear points were found with the mastodon, and they we so designed that they could penetrate a foot into mega-fauna, like a mastodon.

Boaz Mastodon at the Geology Museum
Historical marker

The Clovis related group was likely more a nomadic tribe, not unlike many of those populating Europe at the time. Agriculture was in its infancy with its first beginnings in the Mid-east, but within about 1000 years of humans having reached Wisconsin (about 9,000 years ago), and independent of discoveries in and near the fertile crescent, maize was being domesticated in Mexico or parts of Central America. It was the introduction of agriculture that led to the creation of settlement and of civilization.

When it comes to settlement, much of history is written from a western and European perspective. So is the case with Wisconsin, where we have been taught that the state was “discovered” by Jean Nicolet. The French influence in state history is strong with their early camps, posts and missions, particularly in the area of Green Bay, and the trading post at Prairie du Chien. European exploration of Wisconsin was under the French, and in particular Jesuit priests pushing into land not before seen by Europeans. The best known of these early missionaries would be Fr. Allouez and Fr. Marquette. However, the French and Indian war would bring change in flag to the area we call Wisconsin. In 1763, at the conclusion of that war, the Treaty of Paris would turn this area over to British control. It was during the time of British control that Green Bay (1764) and Prairie du Chien (1781) are recognized as first being settled (see WI Bluebook). However, with the conclusion of the Revolutionary War, and the second treaty of Paris in 1783, the territory which comprised Wisconsin would become part of the United States. However, as reported by the Wisconsin Blue Book, “In spite of the treaty of Paris, Wisconsin remained British in all but title until after the War of 1812. In 1815, the American army established control” (State of Wisconsin Blue Book, 2013-2014, p. 678).

Painting of Fr. Marquette

That Blue Book statement seemingly disregards perhaps the most crucial legislative act to affect Wisconsin. It is an act that set forth the basics of land description, and to a large degree ownership, and division to this day—the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. The northwest ordinance was comprised not only of what we now know as Wisconsin, but also, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and the northeast portion of what we know as Minnesota. If that portion of Minnesota had remained wit
h Wisconsin, St Paul and Duluth would both be cities in Wisconsin. That means would have to claim Woodbury, home to Michelle Bachmann, too. Geography and land is crucial to settlement and the effect of this ground breaking legislation in describing land and setting forth an elementary building block cannot be underestimated. Wisconsin would remain part of the Northwest Territory until 1800, at which time it would become part of the Indiana Territory, it would then later be part of the Illinois Territory, the Michigan Territory, and finally it became part of what was known as the Wisconsin Territory from 1837, until 1848 when it obtained statehood.

Map of the Wisconsin Territory

While we see Wisconsin today having many historical references and place names related to the Native American heritage and French explorers, the state was attractive to varied European ethnic groups during the peak periods of American immigration and settlement, today it continues to attract a different immigrant ethnicity than it did over 100 years ago. We see in neighborhoods of our cities and small towns an ethnic pride that is still prevalent today. Assimilation has muted ethnic differences, and some neighborhoods have transitioned from one ethnicity to another. Yet, they all make up the stew that is Wisconsin. While the tune of what we know as the “On Wisconsin” fight song may originally have been written in 1909 for Minnesota, the now title of that song well captures (captured) the attitudes of many in the state, and it also well fits with the state motto: “Forward.” Although, it sometimes seems that there is an amnesia about our state motto, and the intent of the title of the collegiate fight song title that continues to inspire many today. On Wisconsin!

Editorial cartoon regarding Latino's in Wisconsin

Meaning and Purpose

An article on the CNN website was making the point that the purpose of Memorial Day is often confused with Veteran's Day.  The writer, pointed out that Memorial Day, which we celebrate today, is to honor those who lost their lives in service to our country.  On the other hand, Veteran's Day is to celebrate those who served their country. However, I am not sure that the mixing of the two is a bad thing.  In fact, many chose to recognize this day as a way to recall lives lost of their loved ones.  After all, the simple term "Memorial" would add to that type of celebration. November 11 is often forgotten, and is a second tier national holiday celebrated by the Post Office, and the friendly Illinois brethren to our south.   I do not believe that the broadening celebration hinders the original meaning, and in fact may assist us in preserving our collective memory. War has become, over the past two decades more specialized.  It is not fought with army against army, but rather army against varied groups of insurgents in settings more urban and where guerrilla tactics are used.

Photo of Lt. Col. Steven P. Goff, MD at his funeral service

 Our human nature is formed by the experiences and people around us--they form and shape us.  Part of us may die, yet, part of us can also regenerate.  In a larger sense, however, every person who has served this nation has likely lost a part of themselves due to the conflict.  Some part of that person likely died, whether they know it or not.    They would be transformed by the experience.   One only needs to view the statistics relative to the increase in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) cases. Over the years, it has gone by different names.  Of course, the increase may be due to better diagnosis, or it may be due to the changes in the way wars are fought.  The use of drones, and aircraft, may on the one hand seem rather antiseptic, but as shown in the situation of author Walter Miller, a WWII bombardier, he was affected by the destruction caused by Allied bombing in that war. I also think of my brother-in-law Lt Col Peter Goff, MD who, like Miller, would take his own life long after the event which occurred that likely set off the terrors in his mind.  Steven Peter Goff was severely injured in the  1996 Khobar Towers bombing, and even though he too was injured continued to treat those more severely injured. This act of bravery would earn him the Airman's medal. A piece of shrapnel from the bombing was embedded in his body going with him to his death, and has become part of his cremated remains.  It was a daily reminder to him of the experience of a horrific bombing.  Even though Steven Goff did not die while in a conflict, he was still in the armed forces.  Memorial Day is for him too.

Urn containing the cremated remains of Steven P Goff

But yet, even broadening it out to those family and friends who have died is also not a bad thing, nor does it trivialize those who gave the ultimate sacrifice.  For when they remember a loved one, are they not more likely to also recall those who gave the sacrifice in battle?  Memorial Day is more than camping, it is more than a day off.  It is for us to recall, each in our own personal way, the sacrifices of those who have served our country,and those who had meaning in our life, whether or not in the military.  As war becomes more detached, with use of drones and other technological advancements, the number of persons who die in a conflict is reduced, compared to the past. That does not mean that those who are involved do not have scars.

John "Bud" Hovel, second cousin once removed of author
He was killed in action in Korea, 1951

Medicine has seen to it that many will live, although part of them may have died from the experience from which they were engaged.  They have suffered, and many will continue to suffer from the physical and/or mental wounds received.  But suffering is also part of being human.  As Dumbledore said to Harry Potter in the popular book series:  "Harry, suffering like this proves you are a still a man!  This pain is part of being human...the fact that you can feel pain like this is your greatest strength."  Becoming too desensitized to pain reduces our emotions, and what makes us human.

2011 McFarland, WI Memorial Day Celebration, 

Also what makes us human is our ability to be revitalized.  For some it is the work of modern medical care, for others it is engaging in varied types of activities that give purpose and meaning, for some others it is prayer.  For many, it may  be a combination of activities.  Perhaps this is why it is so important that the feast of Pentecost falls so close to Memorial Day.  Pentecost is renewal, it is the work of the Holy Spirit.  It is for those those who have suffered a loss, for those in need of some healing, for those who strive to have purpose, it is for those who sin.  So, while it is for all of us, perhaps it is most poignant for those who have suffered a loss and are moving through the stages of grief to make new sense and purpose of their life. Spring is the time of year of rebirth, the season itself is a metaphor for renewal and birth.  Memorial Day was in part set in May, as the theory was that every part of the nation would have a flower in bloom at that time of year.  Flowers are a gesture that life springs eternal.  That is what Pentecost represents as well.

2011 Memorial Day Celebration, McFarland, WI
Casket flags of past Legion members

While Memorial Day in its rigorous sense is for us to recall those who lost their life serving their country, recalling the death of a spouse or father to colon cancer, a heart ailment or some other malady should not diminish that recollection.  When our individual and collective thoughts memorialize those who cared for us, or who we cared for, we can also look to renew our lives and our spirits.  That is the true power of Memorial Day.  Take some time to say a  prayer not only for those who have died in service to our country, for those who protected the nation, for the friends and family lost, but also for yourself.

Like Concrete

A commonly used phrase “like concrete” (or a variation) is used both literally and as a metaphor. Concrete is a composite building material that is made up of a few ingredients, the list of which has changed over time. A An early aspect of cement, a part of concrete, was discovered by accident in 1300 BC when builders in the Mid-East placed a damp thin coating of burned limestone over pounded clay walls. This coating reacted chemically with the gases in the air to make a hard surface protecting the pounded clay wall. While not really concrete, it was the first cement. The Romans are often credited with having discovered concrete. Concrete is what has built civilization and is the most used and recognized building product in the world. Most of our homes contain some concrete—usually the foundation. Many highways are built with concrete. Also, impressive structures have been built with this hard material.

Pantheon Dome, looking up to the inside of the dome
1990 photo by author

The Pantheon in Rome, completed in 125 AD has a 142 foot diameter dome, with a 27 foot wide oculus, that is the largest un-reinforced concrete dome in the world. Interestingly, the dome should have fallen by now due to earthquakes, settling and other movement of the concrete, but the exterior walls contain seven niches which reduce the width of the wall, the weight of the structure, but also have acted as control joints which end up to control the locations of cracks. Not unlike control joints in a highway. However, after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, techniques for making Roman pozzolan concrete were lost until rediscovered in the fifteenth century. The components would evolve over the following centuries. Portland cement, for example, was invented in 1824. Concrete was not considered a socially suitable material for other than the construction of industrial buildings during the 19th century. In the mid to late 19th century a Frenchman would be the first to add reinforcement rods to the concrete. Interestingly, in 1891 the first concrete street was poured in the US, and it is still in use today. At 8,000psi, its strength is more than twice that of concrete used in residential construction today. In 1898 there were more than 90 formulas for concrete, but by 1900 the formula had become more standardized.  Today we use pre-cast concrete, cast in place concrete and concrete block to build various buildings.  

Concrete Bell Banner of St John's Abbey Church, Collegeville, MN
Designed by Marcel Breuer
2014 photo by Author 

Standardization and testing that followed the move to a consistent recipe allowed some of the most massive structures in the world to be constructed. One can think of the Hoover and Grand Coulee dams in the US which used 3.25 and 12 million cubic yards of concrete, respectively. Concrete would become part of the modernist movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s and would give the world the Sydney Opera House, and St. John’s Abbey Church. Although, our construction techniques (or due to cost) still have been unable to match the grand nature of the Pantheon and its remarkable dome. The Pantheon dome uses volcanic ash with lime, which binds better than our commonly used Portland cement. Portland cement is not very green. Its creation produces 7% of the earth’s carbon dioxide every year. The Roman use of less lime, and use of limestone allowed them to bake the ingredients at a temperature of 900 degrees Celsius, comparted to the baking of Portland cement at 1450 degrees Celsius. Continued study today of Roman structures is turning up knowledge lost with the collapse of that civilization. Perhaps the world will once again be making Roman pozzolan.

The fire resistant properties lead dorm rooms to be made of concrete block
2013 photo by author

While the Romans had a remarkable knowledge of construction materials and techniques, which humanity today is still trying to fully grasp, present time is also throwing out new techniques. We have all seen cracks in our concrete steps, drives, and perhaps our garage or basement floors, and even our foundation. The cracks are related to a serious flaw in concrete; it can crack under tension. Tension is what led to the invention of concrete reinforcement by iron rods or mesh. Cracks can lead to water infiltration which then corrodes the metal reinforcement, which leads to a weakening of the concrete and its potential failure as a structural material. Material engineers would say it jeopardizes “the structure’s mechanical qualities.” That is why I saw an interesting article about methods to create a “self-healing” concrete. Showing the value of living organisms, a recent break-through in material science was made not by an engineer, but by a biologist. The Biologist, Henk Jonkers, who is a professor in the Netherlands, spent three or more years creating a method for concrete to self-heal by use of bacteria. It may not be too long down the concrete road that bio-concrete may be available, provided it can get by the regulators, and more importantly the road and construction lobbies (perhaps the asphalt lobby may be the most opposed). As reported by CNN, Professor Jonkers decided to devise this healing agent for concrete when a colleague posed the issue of the difficulties of repairing and replacing concrete (hence the construction industry may be against). Jonkers realized the possibilities by use of bacteria, but he had to find a bacteria that is long lasting, and will survive in the rough environment of concrete—weather and its alkalinity. Jonkers realized that bacillus bacteria was likely the answer. This bacteria can survive for decades without food or oxygen.

Bacillus Bacteria
Google images

But, the bacteria itself does not heal, it needs to produce a material.  To do that. Jonkers settled on limestone as the material, or more specifically calcium lactate. The calcium and the bacillus bacteria are placed in a biodegradable capsule and added to the concrete mix. When water enters the concrete, the capsule degrades allowing the bacteria to germinate and feed on the calcium lactate and to combine with the carbonates to form limestone which heals the crack. Limestone is the formation of rock from organisms in seas that once covered the world literally eons ago. Today, we have a micro-organism (bacteria) that may help the world to allow concrete to still be used as a building material, but cut down on the amount manufactured as fewer repairs would have to result from its ability to now self-heal. Perhaps, as scientists dig more into the Roman techniques we will find abilities to combine techniques of 2,000 years ago with the science of today that allow for additional improvement in the environmental costs of concrete production. After all, concrete is the work horse material in building construction world wide.  Using the word concrete so much in this post, makes me now desire a Culver's Concrete Shake.  

 

Inside of St. John's Abbey Church, a concrete structure
2014 photo by the author

Oh Nurse

Starting today, May 6, the nation begins a week long celebration of National Nurses Week. Leave it to nurses to have a celebration that begins not on a Sunday or Monday, but on a Wednesday.  My first reaction, was why would they do this?  Is it to emphasize that their profession is on the front line of health care all day long, every day of the year?  Or to use that now tired phrase 24-7-365, which has now been simply shortened to 24-7?  While it starts on Wednesday this year, the day of the week on which it starts changes, as it always starts on May 6.  Why May 6 was chosen I do not know, but one site had it being related to the birthday of Florence Nightingale.  However, Florence was born on May 12, which corresponds to the end date of the seven days.  Going back in history, it was actually first celebrated in the US in 1954 during October, to correspond to the beginning of Nightingale's service in Crimea.  National Nurses week was formally proclaimed by President Nixon in 1974.  In 1981, representative of the humility of nurses, or perhaps only the thinking that a women could understand, at the urging of nurses in New Mexico, a resolution prepared, adopted and signed (by President Reagan) to advocate May 6 as National Nurse Recognition day.  This was then expanded to a week by the American Nursing Association, in recognition of the days worked by nurses. (So, it related to 24-7.)  In nurse parlance, you do not start the recognition on the day of their esteemed colleague, but rather earlier, even before it became a week long celebration.  Perhaps it was an afterthought, seven days would end on May 12, or perhaps it was by accident.  In the end they decided to recognize Florence.

Does this describe a nurse you know?

Florence, was born in Florence, Italy in 1820, although she is English and not Italian.  Her parents were rather wealthy, with her father having two estates to his name.  She often clashed with her mother, a good English social climber, who adhered to upper class social conventions of the time.  In that sense, she would forbid her daughter to get involved in the unseemly work of being a nurse.  After all, an upper class English women should marry a man of like standing, and be a dutiful spouse and entertain other members of the upper class.  While they may have children, we know that many in that social class farmed out the raising of their children to others--nannies and nurses.  Nursing was not the profession it has come to be today.  Rather, nursing was thought of as a menial profession suitable for the working class, and certainly not suitable for the daughter of a wealthy English landowner.

...stays in the Nurse's office

In 1944 Florence would disobey the wishes of her parents and enter a nursing school at Lutheran Hospital in Kaiserswerth, Germany.   Nightengale would move back to England in 1850 and take a position at a hospital in Middlesex to care for ailing governesses, a bunch of Mary Poppins'.  She was a pioneer of the time, recognizing the problems brought about by unsanitary conditions.  It was her mission to get things cleaned up (sounds like my wife).  This activity so impressed the administration at the hospital that she was soon to become a nursing superintendent.  But, it was her work during the Crimean War that brought her activity to a forefront and recognition by the British army.  Vladimir Putin may have reclaimed Crimea fourteen months ago, but back then, Russia would end up losing the Crimean War to an odd alliance of the Ottoman's, French and British.  Not unlike today, Russia was attempting to take control of territory that was part of a declining Ottoman Empire.  The French and the British thought it in their interests to  prevent Russian aggression and accumulation of territory.

This statement is right up there with"
"I'm a Nurse"

In the United States, up until the Civil War, most nurses were actually men.  Most men were called to fight in the Civil War, or do other duties which left nurse care to women.  Some men, like Walt Whitman, who chose not to go to battle would do nurse care.  By the 1900's nursing schools would not admit men, ,and and the Army and Navy Nurse Corps were limited to only women until after the Korean War.  In 2011, nationally, men made up about 9% of all nurses, and 9.6% of registered nurses.  For comparison, in 1970 men made up about 2.7% of registered nurses.

Florence Nightingale, setting the preferred demeanor of the nursing profession

There are of course, many types of nurses:  Registered Nurses, Licensed Practical Nurses, Nurse Practitioner's, and others.  What used to set nurses apart was their headgear.  Only those of us who are older remember nurses wearing white with their distinctive headgear.  A report of a hospital in Florida noted that many patients do not know if their attendant is a RN or an orderly.  In response, a cardiac unit had throw-back week where the nurses all wore white uniforms and their headgear.  The patients liked it and the nurses liked it.  My spouse is a nurse, and I don't think she even owns the headgear, and if she does she has refused to model it for me.

Nurse hats

What I wonder is if nurses have some sort of inferiority complex, always playing second fiddle to and carrying out the orders of doctors.  They are on the front lines of patient care, tending to the outputs of humans that would qualify as one of Mike Rowe's dirty jobs.  Not only do all nurses get a week, but May 8 of every year is National Student Nurse Day.  Is there a national history major day?  Nurses, like police and fire, have a powerful lobby group.  But, it does not end there.  International Nurses Day is on May 12.  But, yet they get even more specific.  The Wednesday during National Nurses Week, is National School Nurse Day.  This year, 2015, the kickoff of National Nurses Week, is also National School Nurse Day.  Talk about a week for partying, can you imagine a gaggle of nurses in their white gowns and hats having a beer at the local watering hole?  No probably not.  As noted, my spouse is a Nurse, and the party animal that she is, her idea of recognition is a thank you for pulling lice out of a child's hair.  With her as a school nurse, I do have a vested interest in National School Nurse Day.  Just this week she received some gifts.  The box of girl scout cookies she gave to me, and she is sharing some brownies and rhubarb crisp she received at work with me as well. There is only one other duty that surpasses that of nursing in my wife's mind, and that is being a Mom.

Nurse care in the  home

With National Nurses Week, National School Nurse Recognition Day, and Mother's Day all within a few days of each other my wife should be tired out of all the recognition she will be receiving.  Having a nurse as a mother has had its benefits, she was there to tend to our injured or ill children.  Or, more recently to get on their back if they have not seen a doctor for their badly sprained ankle, or have been ill for more than a few weeks.   On the other hand, when she does that, it is hard to tell if she is in "Nurse mode." or in "Mom mode."  Perhaps there is no difference.  If you get a chance, thank a nurse you know for all that they do.  I will be giving one a hug.