Cities and cultures are intertwined. Cities often embody the advance of civilization. They allowed the human population to move from a hunter-gather and nomadic lifestyle to one of specialization of labor. Cities did not evolve by themselves as their development and scaling was dependent upon the institution of agriculture. Yet, in the annals of history cities and their related monuments are often telling of the nature and advance of a civilization. However, just as a pattern exists to settlement scaling, or how cities and related land consumption occured as discussed in a prior post, is there also a pattern to decline of civilizations? If so, is the decline cross-cultural? In other words did similar occurrences lead to decline in varied independent civilizations. Those are difficult questions to answer and over time varied interpretations have occurred for the decline of some major civilizations. At times those explanations are related to bias from the standpoint of the writer themselves or the times in which they find themselves.
Rapa Nui, aka Easter Island
One of the current pre-eminent writers in this area is Jared Diamond, who in his book Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (2006) reviews some successes, but also many failures of certain past societies. Often his theories are based on environmental degradation. He studied cultures as diverse as present time Montana, past Norse settlement of part of Greenland, Mayan culture, and Easter Island. In each case environmental degradation led to collapse of some sort or other. Montana culture has, of course, not fully collapsed, but Diamond paints a not too bright future given the pollution and degradation that has occurred to mining and the after effects such mining will pose for generations to come. Tracts of land in Montana have become unlivable due to the degradation of mining, and the costs to the public for cleanup. However, this post will focus on the decline of three different cultures: Easter Island, Mayan culture and a later post will focus on the decline of the Roman Empire and a wrap-up of lessons of history.
Easter Island, or Rapa Nui, according to Diamond was the “clearest example of a society that destroyed itself by overexploiting its own resources.” Rapa Nui is best known for the large stone heads, or Moai, that were carved and moved to varied locations on the island. The construction of these monuments required a complex culture. The sculpting and transporting of such large carved heads required division of labor, and a ruling and religious class. The Moai were for religious purposes. More recently archaeologist Terry Hunt claims that Diamond’s theory does not hold and the population of Rapa Nui never reached the size noted by Diamond. He further notes that the results of western discovery just after Easter in 1722 (hence its name) was more the issue in the decline of the island’s population. He refers to slavery and disease. However, two issues of the decline of Rapa Nuii stand out. First, evidence shows that the island was once covered by the largest palm trees in the world. The seeds of the palm were gnawed by rats brought with the original Polynesian settlers, and unable to produce and grow. I wonder if the inhabitants may not also have eaten the seeds.
Moai on Rapa Nui
European accounts upon first-contact picture an island that was basically treeless. The large palms were gone having been used for a variety of means, including the movement of the Moai to their varied locations on the island. The tree loss was dramatic and while the population may well have survived into later years, it likely was not the culture it once was. Certainly, western disease and possibly enslavement likely affected the population post 1722, but the culture then was not the complex society that is earlier thought to have been present, and often described by Diamond and others. Second, evidence clearly shows that while the society had cut the last large palm tree (one wonders what the people who felled the last large palm were thinking) the Moai were still being constructed. Perhaps they had a belief that the heads, as monuments to a god, would have their god look kindly down on to them. Perhaps it was a continuation of the power of the main ruler who desired the construction of more monuments. What we see is a society not willing to reinvent itself in the face of coming disaster. Work continued as usual. The construction of the large stone monumental heads commanded a great deal of manpower and resources. Yet, with loss of valued resources the Rapanui leaders continued in the quest. Build more Moai.
Monuments were not unique to the Rapanui. They are part of most every culture and the monument construction is what we today tend to view in awe. Monuments also explain a good deal about a culture. In the jungles of Mexico, Guatemala and other parts of Mesoamerica sit ruins of some of the past grand monuments from the Mayan culture. Mayan settlements were large and hierarchical, not unlike the structure of settlements of Europe or the United States. Aspects of Mayan culture were first discovered in the 1840's, and their collapse has intrigued archaelogists ever since. This is a culture that had math, pottery, writing, calendars and advanced agriculture—all important elements to the establishment and advance of a civilization. It is thought to have been as large as 19 million persons. The civilization went from a series of bustling cities, Tikal in present day Guatemala being one, to ruins in about 100 years. A rather sharp decline. Geographer Billie Lee Turner indicates that perhaps the Mayan decline was not as dramatic and widespread as often believed. However, Turner believes, as noted in the book 1491 by Charles Mann "there is no other known time when a large-scale society disintegrated--and was replaced by nothing." When the Maya collapse occurred there were no more cities and people, it was a mass of land and monuments left to ruin. In the 1930's a Harvard academic noted that the decline was due to the Maya having exceeded the carrying capacity of the land.
Mayan art
A number of different theories, of course, have been advanced to explain the collapse of the Mayan civilization which occurred well before 1492, as it occurred in the eighth and ninth centuries. Deforestation and drought, brought about in part by deforestation are now thought to be the leading theories of the collapse of the once great and learned Mayan culture. Of course, these factors are related to the carrying capacity of the land. The capacity of the land changed due to these conditions. The theory of deforestation and drought was first advanced by Jared Diamond, and more recent research seems to uphold his theory. Trees were important for Mayan fuel. It is thought it took 20 trees for one square meter of cityscape as the trees were required to “fuel the fires that cooked the lime plaster for their elaborate constructions.” Land was also cleared not just to provide fuel, but to also provide land for agriculture. Near the time of collapse weather patterns were already in a drought condition and researchers believe that the quick deforestation led to less rain due to less solar radiation which leads to less evaporation which in turn produces less clouds and rainfall. This at a time of what they term unprecedented population density.
Mayan Monument in Tikal
The decline occurred even though the Maya well understood the complex environment in which they lived and had developed sophisticated farming production and water supply techniques. They understood their environment and knew how to survive, but a tipping point was reached and the environment could no longer sustain their society. We often think of Native Americans as being exemplary stewards of the land, but yet an ecological catastrophe was brought about under their watch. Like us today, Native Americans had different values, and like us used the land, and its resources to their benefit. The civilization was hit with a perfect storm or confluence of events from which it could not recover. Yet, it is more than a simple explanation, it is also an economic one. The traditional elite, what we would likely call the top ten percent today, relied on trade routes and crops of which to trade. The drought not only decreased crop production but also affected the trade routes. The decline in power of the top ten percent caused those peasants and craftsmen under them to make choices, such as abandoning their home in the lowland empire.
Mayan Civilization
Decline of resources, and alterations in natural systems are not an uncommon explanation for the decline of a society or culture. People depend upon the land and the resources it provides. When one or more aspects of the natural systems of God's creation change, failure can result. Think of Flint, MI. That is why wise use of resources is a necessity. This post focused on two different cultures and their decline. The decline of the Maya being so great that nothing else went into its place. The next post will focus on the decline experienced by one of the greatest empires of Western Civilization--Rome, and at the end the commonalities will give us pause as to where we as a current culture wish to move. So, tune in someitme next week for part 2 of Decline.
Rapa Nui, aka Easter Island
One of the current pre-eminent writers in this area is Jared Diamond, who in his book Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (2006) reviews some successes, but also many failures of certain past societies. Often his theories are based on environmental degradation. He studied cultures as diverse as present time Montana, past Norse settlement of part of Greenland, Mayan culture, and Easter Island. In each case environmental degradation led to collapse of some sort or other. Montana culture has, of course, not fully collapsed, but Diamond paints a not too bright future given the pollution and degradation that has occurred to mining and the after effects such mining will pose for generations to come. Tracts of land in Montana have become unlivable due to the degradation of mining, and the costs to the public for cleanup. However, this post will focus on the decline of three different cultures: Easter Island, Mayan culture and a later post will focus on the decline of the Roman Empire and a wrap-up of lessons of history.
Easter Island, or Rapa Nui, according to Diamond was the “clearest example of a society that destroyed itself by overexploiting its own resources.” Rapa Nui is best known for the large stone heads, or Moai, that were carved and moved to varied locations on the island. The construction of these monuments required a complex culture. The sculpting and transporting of such large carved heads required division of labor, and a ruling and religious class. The Moai were for religious purposes. More recently archaeologist Terry Hunt claims that Diamond’s theory does not hold and the population of Rapa Nui never reached the size noted by Diamond. He further notes that the results of western discovery just after Easter in 1722 (hence its name) was more the issue in the decline of the island’s population. He refers to slavery and disease. However, two issues of the decline of Rapa Nuii stand out. First, evidence shows that the island was once covered by the largest palm trees in the world. The seeds of the palm were gnawed by rats brought with the original Polynesian settlers, and unable to produce and grow. I wonder if the inhabitants may not also have eaten the seeds.
Moai on Rapa Nui
European accounts upon first-contact picture an island that was basically treeless. The large palms were gone having been used for a variety of means, including the movement of the Moai to their varied locations on the island. The tree loss was dramatic and while the population may well have survived into later years, it likely was not the culture it once was. Certainly, western disease and possibly enslavement likely affected the population post 1722, but the culture then was not the complex society that is earlier thought to have been present, and often described by Diamond and others. Second, evidence clearly shows that while the society had cut the last large palm tree (one wonders what the people who felled the last large palm were thinking) the Moai were still being constructed. Perhaps they had a belief that the heads, as monuments to a god, would have their god look kindly down on to them. Perhaps it was a continuation of the power of the main ruler who desired the construction of more monuments. What we see is a society not willing to reinvent itself in the face of coming disaster. Work continued as usual. The construction of the large stone monumental heads commanded a great deal of manpower and resources. Yet, with loss of valued resources the Rapanui leaders continued in the quest. Build more Moai.
Monuments were not unique to the Rapanui. They are part of most every culture and the monument construction is what we today tend to view in awe. Monuments also explain a good deal about a culture. In the jungles of Mexico, Guatemala and other parts of Mesoamerica sit ruins of some of the past grand monuments from the Mayan culture. Mayan settlements were large and hierarchical, not unlike the structure of settlements of Europe or the United States. Aspects of Mayan culture were first discovered in the 1840's, and their collapse has intrigued archaelogists ever since. This is a culture that had math, pottery, writing, calendars and advanced agriculture—all important elements to the establishment and advance of a civilization. It is thought to have been as large as 19 million persons. The civilization went from a series of bustling cities, Tikal in present day Guatemala being one, to ruins in about 100 years. A rather sharp decline. Geographer Billie Lee Turner indicates that perhaps the Mayan decline was not as dramatic and widespread as often believed. However, Turner believes, as noted in the book 1491 by Charles Mann "there is no other known time when a large-scale society disintegrated--and was replaced by nothing." When the Maya collapse occurred there were no more cities and people, it was a mass of land and monuments left to ruin. In the 1930's a Harvard academic noted that the decline was due to the Maya having exceeded the carrying capacity of the land.
Mayan art
A number of different theories, of course, have been advanced to explain the collapse of the Mayan civilization which occurred well before 1492, as it occurred in the eighth and ninth centuries. Deforestation and drought, brought about in part by deforestation are now thought to be the leading theories of the collapse of the once great and learned Mayan culture. Of course, these factors are related to the carrying capacity of the land. The capacity of the land changed due to these conditions. The theory of deforestation and drought was first advanced by Jared Diamond, and more recent research seems to uphold his theory. Trees were important for Mayan fuel. It is thought it took 20 trees for one square meter of cityscape as the trees were required to “fuel the fires that cooked the lime plaster for their elaborate constructions.” Land was also cleared not just to provide fuel, but to also provide land for agriculture. Near the time of collapse weather patterns were already in a drought condition and researchers believe that the quick deforestation led to less rain due to less solar radiation which leads to less evaporation which in turn produces less clouds and rainfall. This at a time of what they term unprecedented population density.
Mayan Monument in Tikal
The decline occurred even though the Maya well understood the complex environment in which they lived and had developed sophisticated farming production and water supply techniques. They understood their environment and knew how to survive, but a tipping point was reached and the environment could no longer sustain their society. We often think of Native Americans as being exemplary stewards of the land, but yet an ecological catastrophe was brought about under their watch. Like us today, Native Americans had different values, and like us used the land, and its resources to their benefit. The civilization was hit with a perfect storm or confluence of events from which it could not recover. Yet, it is more than a simple explanation, it is also an economic one. The traditional elite, what we would likely call the top ten percent today, relied on trade routes and crops of which to trade. The drought not only decreased crop production but also affected the trade routes. The decline in power of the top ten percent caused those peasants and craftsmen under them to make choices, such as abandoning their home in the lowland empire.
Mayan Civilization
Decline of resources, and alterations in natural systems are not an uncommon explanation for the decline of a society or culture. People depend upon the land and the resources it provides. When one or more aspects of the natural systems of God's creation change, failure can result. Think of Flint, MI. That is why wise use of resources is a necessity. This post focused on two different cultures and their decline. The decline of the Maya being so great that nothing else went into its place. The next post will focus on the decline experienced by one of the greatest empires of Western Civilization--Rome, and at the end the commonalities will give us pause as to where we as a current culture wish to move. So, tune in someitme next week for part 2 of Decline.
No comments:
Post a Comment